INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (SOCIETY, ECONOMY, POLITICAL, RELIGION, ARTS & CRAFT)
Above image from: https://www.timemaps.com/civilizations/indus-valley-civilization/
INTRODUCTION
* The Harrapan civilization flourished between 2500 BCE- 1500 BCE.
* The Harrapan civilization was an urban culture of the bronze age.
* The formal announcement of the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization was made in 1924 by John Marshall, the Director General of Archeological Survey.
* John Marchall believes that the Harrapan civilization was an offshoot of Sumerian (Mesopotamian) Civilization.
* Scholars believes that the origin of Harrapan civilization can be traced to the emergence of settled farming communities in Bulachistan in the 7th millennium BCE.
* Harrapan Period is further divided into Early Harappan phase to Mature period.
HARAPPAN SOCIETY
* There was a social division in the society of Harrapan period.
* The structure of the cities shows the social differentiation. In the citadel or the first locality, the ruling class lived and the lowest tower was where the common people lived. The middle settlement may gave been meant for bureaucrats and middle- class merchant
Citadel- Ruling class
Middle settlement- Bureaucrats/ Middle-class merchants
Lowest tower- Common People.
* Class and rank difference was based on occupation, wealth and status.
* Numerous female figure are found, some represent goddess, figurines of women at work. The available evidence also shows women with food processing activities.
HARAPPAN ECONOMY
* Animal husbandry, agriculture and hunting were the main profession of the Harappan people.
* There exist inter-regional trade as well as foreign trade.
* The main agricultural outputs were wheat, barley, varieties of fruits, rice, varieties of grams and peas.
* There were also irrigation canals at the Harappan sited and a small scale canal network.
* The domesticated animals were- buffalo, dog, sheep and goat.
* Buffaloes were the most important domesticated animals while Horse was unknown/ unfamiliar to them.
* There was a trade in Indian sub-continent also with Mesopotamia and areas around Persian Gulf.
* Grains and other foods products were traded between villages and cities.
* In return for their goods, they procured metals from neighboring areas.
* Several routes of trade and communication connected the various parts pf the Harappan culture zone.
* Items of trade with foreign countries includes chlorite vessels, shell, beads, chert weights and ivory objects.
* They imported raw materials for the commodities they produced.
* The quantum of Harappan long-distance trade was not very great.
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
* There was a strong element of political stability.
* Stuart Piggot suggested that the Harrapan state was a highly centralized empire ruled by autocratic priests-kings from twin capitals of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
* They seems to united under single ruler, however there is no much evidence.
* Walter A. Fairservis argued that Harappan did not have an empire, not even a state and sort of control seen in the Harappan civilization could have been exercised by an elaborate village administration.
* C.S. Malik argued that the idea of strong centralized state is not possible because of the lack of imposing monuments and supreme gods.
* Ratnagar argued for strong Harrapan empire, but Jim Shaffer questioned the level of homogeneity in the Harrapan civilization and suggests that it could have been the result of well developed network of internal trade rather than a strong centralized government. He point out the absence of royal tombs, palaces, temples and marked social differentiation in the Harappan.
* Possehl argued that Harappans may have been ruled by councils rather than kings.
* Centralized control is also apparent in the Harappan civilization, but it is not clear who enforced it.
* There was economic complexity and the existence of a state.
HARAPPAN RELIGION
* In Harappa, numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found and these were labelled as 'Mother Goddesses'.
* The worship of female goddesses associated with fertility is held as one of the major features of Harappan religion.
* Another aspect of the fertility-related beliefs of the Harappan was the worship of male and female creative energy in the form of stone icons of lingas and yonis.
* Numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone have been found in Harappa.
* John Marshall suggested that the Harappan also worshipped a male god represented on a a seal discovered at Mohenjo-Daro which is usually referred to as the Pashupati seal. This god has three-horned heads and surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros and below his throne is a buffalo, and at his feet is two deer.
*Harappan seals and tablets depict trees, plants and animals. The Pipal Tree appears often. Animals were also worshipped in the Harappan times, and many of them are represented on seals.
* The bull, a symbol of male virility in many ancient cultures seems to have particularly important.
* The Great Bath was also probably used for ceremonial bathing. It is interesting to note that Harappan civilization display a few features which were practiced in the later period.
HARAPPAN ART AND CRAFT
* There is a great variety of Standardized, mass-produced crafts items at Harappan sites.
Pottery: A great variety of pottery was produced and most pots were wheel turned. The typical Harappan pottery is a fine, sturdy, wheel-made ware.
Terracotta: Figurines of animals such as bulls, buffaloes, monkeys and dogs were found. Human figurines were also found and female figurines are more numerous than male.
Seal making: Most of the seal are square or rectangular. A few cylindrical and round seal were also found. Average size of square figures and plants on the seal. Most of the seal have a short inscription. Some seals have writing but no motifs.
Bead making: Some Harappan beads were found in royal burials of Mesopotamia, Beads, bracelets and decorative inlay work of shell show the existence of craftsperson skilled in shell working. Beads were made of steatite, agate, carnelian, lapiz lazuli, shell, terracotta, gold, silver and copper.
Textiles: Various kinds of spindle whorls for spinning thread have been found. Weaving may have been a cottage industry in villages, and also in the cities.
Stone Works: Stone masonry was another important craft. Blades made of stones may have been used as knives for domestic use, or as sickles.
Metal works: A large number of copper and bronze objects were found, like vessels, spears, knives, short, swords, axes, needles, rings, bangles, etc. Gold and Silver jewellery were also found. The Harappan might have also been familiar with iron smelting.
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